To read the full text of the speeches analyzed below, click the links below:

Remarks by President Clinton during "A Time of Healing" Prayer Service
Oklahoma State Fair Arena, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
April 23, 1995

Eulogy for the Late Prime Minister and Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin by President Bill Clinton
Mt. Herzl, Jerusalem
November 6, 1995

Introduction

Eulogies are among the most difficult addresses that a speech writer must draft. Because deaths and funerals occur suddenly, a speech writer is forced to prepare quickly. He needs to create a sermon that is part spiritual, part familiar, even part humor. For the President of the United States, his words of condolence are extremely critical. He has the chance to speak for the nation in times of sadness, crisis, and loss. In this paper, I will analyze two of President Clinton's eulogies from 1995: his remarks at the Oklahoma City bombing prayer service, and his tribute to Israel's Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.

Acts of terror precipitated both eulogies. In April, the president spoke at the Oklahoma State Fair Arena four days after a truck bomb demolished the Murrah Federal Building. Then in November, the president spoke to a predominately Israeli audience at Mt. Herzl, Jerusalem (and the Jewish-American community back home) after Prime Minister Rabin was assassinated.

Both of these eulogies were generally epideictic in form.[1] Clinton spoke in praise of the citizens of Oklahoma and Rabin, although he also spoke in a deliberative sense to the nations that these individuals served. Epideictic speeches like these are difficult to evaluate in terms of impact on the larger national audience. Few people respond to such speeches ways that challenges the claims in the speech, and these speeches are not the kind that one would (or could) attack.[2] Nevertheless, millions saw the speeches on television or in clips on the evening news. Most newspapers carried at least part of the texts of both eulogies. The Los Angeles Times described Clinton's Oklahoma City eulogy as a "spiritual salve" and a "pep-rally for an oft-overlooked region . . . Throughout the day, Oklahomans were told they represent all that is good about America, that in suffering they have become a model for the rest of the world.”[3] USA Today remarked that the services for Yitzhak Rabin marked the most emotional day of Clinton's presidency, except for the memorial service at Oklahoma City.[4]

Clinton adhered closely to the basic eulogy format: acquaint the audience with the individual's or individuals' life, remind listeners of the person's or people's significant contributions and virtues, and leave the audience feeling positive and hopeful for the future.[5] In addition, Clinton employed key speech techniques. First, the president created an identification with the audience. I will examine how the president increased his ethos by relating to the victims and to the survivors. Second, the president laced his eulogies with frequent and powerful references to the Bible. I will explore the context surrounding these passages and explain why these phrases were so appropriate. Finally, I will specify and deconstruct the imagery that the president used to great effect.

I. Identification

An integral part of a speaker's ethos is his ability to connect and establish an identity between himself and the audience. If the audience perceives the speaker as a person who shares their values, they will be more open to persuasion by the speaker.

The president opened the Oklahoma City eulogy by addressing "all of you who are here as our fellow Americans." This phrase bound everyone in the room together as a single family. The president no longer spoke as a public official but as a member of a shared community. In the next paragraph, the president went even further in demonstrating his similarity with the audience. "I am honored to be here today to represent the American people. But I have to tell you that Hillary and I also come as parents, as husband and wife, as people who were your neighbors for some of the best years of our lives." Clinton cloaked himself in an identity—a parent, a married person—that the audience could relate to. This identity was particularly poignant since many members in the audience had just lost a child or spouse in the bombing. Striving for even more identification, Clinton portrayed himself as a part of the community, a common resident of the Ozarks.

At Rabin's funeral, the president faced a greater identification hurdle since he was speaking to a foreign people. Nevertheless, Clinton adroitly used a common experience with Rabin to boost his ethos:

I read that in 1949 after the war of independence, David ben Gurion sent [Rabin] to represent Israel at the armistice talks as Rhoads and he had never before worn a necktie, and he did not know how to tie the knot. So, the problem was solved by a friend who tied it for him before he left and showed him how to preserve the knot, simply by loosening the tie and pulling it over his head. Well, the last time we were together, not two weeks ago, he showed up for a black tie event, on time, but without the black tie. And so he borrowed a tie and I was privileged to straighten it for him. It was a moment I will cherish as long as I live.”

This anecdote fulfilled many objectives at once. First, Clinton was able inject some humor into this tribute, giving the doleful address some energy. Second, Clinton was able to mention that he and Rabin had met "not two weeks ago." This statement would give the appearance that Rabin and Clinton were close friends who frequently enjoyed each other's company. Third, Clinton's assistance with Rabin's tie was symbolic of a deep friendship where Rabin could trust Clinton in a vulnerable, almost paternalistic, moment. The Israeli audience could feel that Clinton was confidant of their fallen hero, and therefore, a friend of theirs.

Clinton also explained to the Israeli audience that he could relate to losing one's leader. He spoke "on behalf of my nation that knows its own long litany of loss, from Abraham Lincoln to President Kennedy to Martin Luther King . . ." This is why Clinton could identify with the Israel's grief. Clinton also scored points with the audience by elevating Rabin to the level of an American president.

II. Biblical References

The Bible is a common contributor to speeches. A writer can use his command of the Bible's parables and verses to add distinction to his speeches. Biblical references often appear in eulogies since funerals are usually religious ceremonies. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the Oklahoma City and Rabin eulogies was the frequent and felicitous use of biblical quotes. The spiritual messages sprinkled through these eulogies were particularly relevant since Oklahoma City held a devout community and Yitzhak Rabin was the leader of the Jewish state.

A. Oklahoma City Eulogy
Clinton set a religious tone for this speech by describing the terrorist act as a "terrible sin." He described the attack as "evil" and motivated by "dark forces." Then, Clinton invoked the Bible to demonstrate his commitment to catching the perpetrators. In the climax of the eulogy, Clinton said: "Let us teach our children that the God of comfort is also the God of righteousness. Those who make trouble in their own house will inherit the wind. Justice will prevail."

1. "Let us teach our children that the God of comfort is also the God of righteousness."
The God of comfort and righteousness is primarily a reference to the book of Isaiah. Isaiah makes up one of the "Major Prophets" because of the length of the book.[6] Isaiah combined warnings of doom about Jerusalem's wicked ways with hopes for prosperous times. He announced a coming judgment and arrival of a messianic era when a king from David's line will rule in peace and righteousness.[7] Isaiah has played a central role for Christians and has even been called "The Fifth Gospel" because Jesus' life fulfilled so many of the book's prophesies.[8]

Isaiah's first 39 chapters describe the God of righteousness. It is a rambling message of judgment against nations, kingdoms, cities, and people.[9] Isaiah promises divine retribution against those who defy the word of God. But in Isaiah 40, God chooses to comfort his people after their trials and testings. In Isaiah 40:1, God commands that his legions of believers provide comfort for one another. This notion of exchanging comfort would be particularly poignant in Oklahoma City where victims and survivors could be consoled by their neighbors. Isaiah 40:2 would also be a comforting verse for the city. The verse says that God will never lose interest in us and that He understands our needs.[10]

The particular emphasis of this part of Clinton's speech, however, was on retribution and justice. The God of righteousness not only refers to the first part of Isaiah, but also to Lamentations. Lamentations is a brief book of sorrowful poems recalling the grim fate of Jerusalem following its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.[11] The authors of Lamentations believed that the destruction of Jerusalem was God's punishment for Israel's sins. "God is righteous, for I have rebelled against his commandment (Lam 1:18) . . . Let all their wickedness come before thee, and do unto them as thou hast done unto me for all my transgressions (Lam 1:22). Clinton is calling for God to hurl punishment down on the villains of Oklahoma City just as he did against the sinners in the Bible.

Clinton's last line of this paragraph, "Justice will prevail," also makes reference to Lamentations. First, Clinton makes that case that since Lamentations says justice will prevail, the people of Oklahoma and the country should feel secure that justice will be done. Second, since the United States is the entity that seeks justice, Clinton creates the metaphor of the FBI playing the role of God. This sentence derived extra force from its brevity.

2. "Those Who Make Trouble in Their Own House will Inherit the Wind"
This is a direct quote from Proverbs 11:29. The book of Proverbs consists of hundreds of traditional sayings and popular adages. The verses give advice and admonitions on themes like behavior, purity, and avoidance of sin.[12] These bits of wisdom were traditionally attributed to King Solomon, but actually consists of sayings that date from different periods. The book was probably compiled by rabbis or sages who offered moral and religious instruction to young Jewish men.[13]

Clinton's quote from Proverbs is right on point since the terrorists of Oklahoma City were in fact American citizens. The bombing was not an incident sponsored by foreign actors but by individuals making trouble in their own house. Although the government did not know at the time of the speech who the actual perpetrators were, the lack of claims of responsibility from foreign groups and the location of the attack led investigators to conclude that the terrorists were homegrown.

B. Yitzhak Rabin Eulogy
Clinton used a passage from the Bible to inspire the people of Israel to remain strong in their time of trial. "As Moses said to the children of Israel when he knew he would not cross over into the promised land, 'Be strong and of good courage. Fear not, for God will go with you. He will not fail you, He will not forsake you.' This verse comes from Deuteronomy 31:6. Clinton's quote from Deuteronomy is exceptionally well chosen because that book is essentially Moses' farewell address.[14] Clinton is trying to invoke a comparison between Moses—Israeli hero, prophet, and founder—with Rabin, also an Israeli hero and founder. This portion of Deuteronomy tells the Hebrews, as Clinton did that day, that God will be with each of them if they seek and require his strength. A paragraph later, Clinton again invoked the association of Moses and Rabin. While describing Rabin's effort to achieve Middle East peace, Clinton praised him for "leading his people to that promised land."

Clinton finished his eulogy by demonstrating a strong knowledge of Jewish tradition. Not only was Clinton able to evoke strong emotions with the following passage, he also increased his identification with the audience.

This week, Jews all around the world are studying the Torah portion in which God tests the faith of Abraham, patriarch of the Jews and Arabs. He commands Abraham to sacrifice Yitzhak. 'Take your son, the one you love, Yitzhak.' As we all know, as Abraham, in loyalty to God, was about to kill his son, God spared Yitzhak. Now God tests our faith even more terribly, for he has taken our Yitzhak.

Each year, Jews focus their worship around a chronological procession through the Torah. The speechwriters for this eulogy should be commended for their creativity and thoroughness in seeking out which section of the Torah was under study this particular week. The story of the sacrifice of Isaac (Yitzhak) comes from Genesis, the first book of the Bible. Among other lessons, this story is a demonstration of Abraham's unshakable faith in God. Clinton could be using this parable to remind his audience not to lose faith in their nation, in the peace process, and in themselves.

III. Imagery

The Oklahoma City and Yitzhak Rabin eulogy were so powerful because of their imagery. The speechwriters drafted sentences that created a visual picture in the minds of the audience and used words that produced a lasting impression. My favorite phrase from Oklahoma City was Clinton's description of a tree. Before the president left for the funeral service, he and Hillary planted a tree at the White House in honor of the children of Oklahoma. "It was a dogwood with its wonderful spring flower and its deep, enduring roots." The metaphors that grow from this tree are remarkable. The spring flower represents the children—in the spring of their lives, vibrant, delicate, colorful. The deep, enduring roots represent the families' memories and the families' commitment to carry on their legacy. The dogwood will grow into a strong, durable tree at the White House, a permanent memorial to and lasting presence of the children of Oklahoma.

Clinton also used particular phrasing to add rhythm to his speech. Clinton described the outpouring of support for the bombing victims this way: "If anybody thinks that Americans are mostly mean and selfish, they ought to come to Oklahoma. If anybody thinks Americans have lost the capacity for love and caring and courage, they ought to come to Oklahoma." This cadence and repetition of "they ought to come to Oklahoma" is similar to a section of President Kennedy's Ich Bin Ein Berliner speech.[15]

Clinton used imagery in describing Rabin that would appeal to Israelis. In recounting Rabin's military exploits, Clinton said: "This son of David and of Solomon, took up arms to defend Israel's freedom and lay down his life to secure Israel's future." First, note how Clinton said son of David and of Solomon. Because this speech is meant to be heard, Clinton can use the repetition of of for timing and emphasis without seeming redundant. If this speech were meant to be read, Clinton would just say "son of David and Solomon." Second, this biblical reference to David and Solomon places Rabin at the end of a long line of brave Jewish warriors. For Rabin to be a son of David and Solomon has double meaning: all Jews are said to have descended from David and Solomon, and David, Solomon, and Rabin all fit within the Jewish tradition of courageous soldiers.

Later, Clinton described how the spirit of Rabin lives on and implored the Israelis not to lose their spirit. "Look at what you have accomplished, making a once barren desert bloom, building a thriving democracy in a hostile terrain, winning battles and wars and now winning the peace, which is the only enduring victory." Notice how Clinton creates a visual picture with each sentence. A barren desert blooms. A democracy thrives in a hostile terrain. And finally, look how poetic the juxtaposition is of winning wars and winning the peace. Rabin's eulogy was considered so moving and so beautiful because of the frequent use of such graphic imagery. The sentiment of a eulogy makes such imagery particularly useful and effective.

Conclusion

National disasters like the Oklahoma City bombing or the assassination of Prime Minister Rabin present a leader with an especially difficult problem. "He must identify with the ensuing national grief—lead the mourning, in a sense—but he must also confine it and direct it, lest it evolve into a sense of national despair and futility."' Clinton's speech accomplished both goals. He expressed the nation's grief and condolence while at the same time making a strong case against terrorism everywhere. Interestingly, homegrown terrorists were responsible for both tragedies. This is particularly remarkable for two nations that spend so much energy worrying about the destructive capabilities of foreign, particularly Islamic, terrorists.

Part of the strengths of these eulogies is that they fit within a larger body of rhetoric, a larger story, with which the audience is familiar. Clinton made explicit reference to this larger meaning when he said that the dogwood tree, symbolizing those killed in the bombing, "embodied the lesson of the Psalms." Furthermore, Clinton sounded confident and assured even during the time of tragedy. The audiences likely found comfort and reassurance in Clinton's manner and in his words.

Clinton and his speech writers used a similar format for both of these eulogies. The close proximity of these speeches helps us compare and identify common themes and popular imagery for Clinton and his staff. These writers created meaningful eulogies using shared concepts and collective historical memories. The speeches were successful in stirring strong emotions with the immediate audience, and also sending a compelling message to mourners around the world.

Endnotes:
1. Lloyd Rohler, Great Speeches for Criticism and Analysis, (Alistair Press: Greenwood, Indiana), 1988, p. 314.
2. Ibid., p. 317.
3. Jesse Katz, Bells Chime, U.S. Embraces A City In Pain, Los Angeles Times, April 24, 1995, Al.
4. Bill Nichols, Clinton's Bid Farewell From the Heart, USA Today, November 7, 1995, p A3.
5. Sheldon Metcalfe, Building A Speech, (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston: Fort Worth), 1991, p. 319.
6. Kenneth C. Davis, Don't Know Much About the Bible, (Eagle Brook: New York, 1998), p. 219.
7. Ibid., p.225.
8. Ibid., p. 224.
9. http://www.brandonweb.com/gbt/sermonpages/isaiah11.htm.
10. Ibid.
11. Davis, p. 210.
12. Ibid., p. 287.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid., p. 140.
15. "There are many people in the world who really don't understand, or say they don't, what is the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin. There are some who say that communism is the wave of the future. Let them come to Berlin. And there are some who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And there are even a few who say that it is true that communism is an evil system, but it permits us to make economic progress. Lass' sie nach Berlin kommen. Let them come to Berlin.”
16. Rohler, p. 318.
17. Rohler, p. 317.

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About the Author

Keva Silversmith is accomplished public relations and communications professional.  He has worked for some of the biggest names in business including Perry Ellis International, Edelman Public Relations and Burger King Corporation. Silversmith’s achievements extend well beyond the boardroom.  He holds a law license from the states of Maryland and Florida, and is a former personal trainer.  He is the author of a tongue-in-cheek fitness blog at gymsanity.com.